Discover the Middle Ages
Understanding Medieval Europe
The Issue of Definitions
Hello and welcome to the comprehensive timeline of Medieval Europe. Before examining the extensive and intriguing history of Europe in the Middle Ages, we must first define what the Middle Ages were exactly. More specifically, we will start by examining the time period, ideas, and events which best define the Middle Ages. Historians often disagree on which dates best define this period, as the concept of “the Middle Ages” itself didn’t exist until the Fifteenth Century. The people of the medieval period certainly didn’t know they were living in the Middle Ages and as such, had no way of defining it themselves, which leaves it up to contemporary historians to properly define the period. It is important to understand that like all historical periods, the Middle Ages are unclear as to how they can properly be defined. The very act of determining when a specific period ends, and when another begins, is inherently arbitrary, and as a result, there is no definitive right or wrong answer. In all periods within the Middle Ages, there existed continuities and differences, so attempting to consistently define the end of some ages and the beginning of others by their differences is not a practical approach in many cases. For example, many historians consider the end of the Western Roman fiscal structure in 476 to be the telltale sign of the end of an era, yet if we examine the contemporary sources, we will see that the first known source to give relevance to this idea, a chronicler by the name of Marcellinus, did so around 518, nearly 4 decades after the supposed apocalyptic collapse of Western Rome. [1] The fall of Western Rome, very commonly referred to as the key event that ended antiquity and began the Middle Ages was, in reality, a far more gradual process than it is often portrayed to be.
Defining the Middle Ages
To most historians, the Middle Ages started with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ended with the Italian Renaissance. Others believe the beginning of the Middle Ages started as late as 1000 AD and ended as late as 1800 AD.[2] I, for one, agree far more -but not completely- with the former, as the fall of Western Rome is what led to the rebuilding of complexity that defined the Middle Ages in so many ways. However, while the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 to Odoacer, this date was not and should not be treated as a definitive start nor end date. The fall of Western Rome, while important to the story of the early medieval period, was a slow and gradual process, as was the start of the Middle Ages itself. Odoacer’s deposition of Romulus Augustulus and the sacking of Rome signaled the end of the Western Roman Empire’s fiscal structure (and certainly not its culture), but by this point Western Rome had been declining for quite some time. While the fall of Western Rome was an important event by itself, it was not necessarily a causal event in terms of offering a definitive start to the Middle Ages. However, the fall of Western Rome is important nonetheless as it offers a point where we can mark the slow end of the Classical period and the gradual buildup to the Middle Ages. As such, the Fall of Western Rome will be included in this timeline, but should not be understood as a definitive starting date. The cultural elements of the Roman Empire itself have continued well throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern era. Therefore, we should not reference a decline in Roman culture as a signal for the start of the Middle Ages either. We can, however, examine a distinct new culture that arose with the expansion of Germanic tribes around roughly 500 AD. So if we must choose a rough date in defining the start of the Middle Ages, 500 AD would be it.
Likewise, the end of the Middle Ages cannot easily be assigned to a specific date. Many historians agree that roughly 1500 AD serves as an adequate marker for the end of the Middle Ages. Many of these same historians also argue that the Italian Renaissance was the key event that determined this date to be the end of the millennium-long era. While I agree that roughly 1500 serves as an appropriate endpoint for the Middle Ages in Europe, I do not believe the Italian Renaissance should be the sole factor in determining this date. As some expert historians such as Chris Wickham have argued, the gradual buildup of increasingly complex economic systems, taxation, literacy, and interconnectedness took many centuries to develop Europe into the continent we know it as today.[3] While the Italian Renaissance is a key event in the Late Middle Ages, it is only the culmination of many prior developments, and not some spontaneous event as it is often painted out to be. One of the key characteristics of the Middle Ages as a whole was the birth of a recognizable European identity. The Italian Renaissance is often cited as a rebirth in interest in classical antiquity. However, upon examining the entirety of the Middle Ages, one can see that this interest in classical antiquity never died in the first place. This perceived “rebirth” was merely the culmination of centuries of reorganization and the rebuilding of complexity. As literature became more common, and education more far reaching, brilliant scholars began to arise, such as those of the Italian Renaissance.
A more convincing argument for the event that marks a significant shift in the focus of humanity is the Age of Exploration. While it can easily be argued that the Italian Renaissance was responsible for inspiring the Age of Exploration, the aforementioned “rebirth” was not so uncommon upon a deeper examination of the Middle Ages as a whole. While Columbus is increasingly discredited for discovering the New World, as he wasn’t the first European to reach the Americas; there are dozens of Europeans who visited and settled the Americas before him, not to mention the natives who had inhabited the Americas for roughly 15,000 years; his contact with the New World was nonetheless significant. Based on this contact between the New World and the Old World, we have a more convincing argument for the start of the modern period and subsequently an end to the Middle Ages.
Depending on which historian you ask, you may get entirely different responses as to when and what the Middle Ages were. The fall of Western Rome is a more than adequate start date to this time period and the Age of Exploration is a significant event that brought about unprecedented developments that deeply define our Modern Era. The general consensus is that the Middle Ages lasted from roughly 500-1500. As for the various subperiods of the Middle Ages, they can be defined as follows:
The Dark Ages-
500–950 AD
The High Middle Ages-
951–1300 AD
The Late Middle Ages-
1301–1500 AD
The Dark Ages
(500 - 950)
The Dark Ages were a profound transitional period starting with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and ending with the Medieval Warm Period, which led (partly, at least) to a period of long economic and cultural growth around the turn of the Tenth Century. The age of apocalypse, identity crisis, and famously the age of the Vikings, the Dark Ages represent an occluded period of history in which relatively little is known, especially of the daily lives of peasantry, a common theme among all of the medieval period, but one that remains especially true in this time. With the collapse of the Western Roman fiscal structure, we can observe a gradual decay of Roman influence and infrastructure. However, we can also examine the gradual rebuilding of the legitimacy once carried by the Romans in the west and the continuity of the Roman Empire in the east.
476: The Fall of Western Rome
The last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus (475-476)*, was deposed by the Germanic military leader Odoacer (476- 493) after centuries of Western Roman decline. The fall of Western Rome was a gradual process, and this date doesn’t encompass the fall of the Western Roman Empire in its entirety. For example, by AD 439, the Vandals had taken Carthage and established themselves as the predominant force in Northern Africa; what followed were attempts to recapture Northern Africa in 441, 460, and 468, all of which were ultimately failures. If nothing else however, the date of 476 is an important milestone in marking the formal end to the western half of the Empire’s fiscal structure. The Romanitas, or Roman identity that had so profoundly shaped the Roman Empire, had continued throughout the entirety of the Middle Ages and well into the modern day. The Romanitas continued the legacy of Rome along with the Eastern Roman Empire, also called the Byzantine Empire.
*The birth date of Romulus Augustulus is contested, but he is believed to have been born between 460 and 465, making him between 11 and 16 years of age when he was deposed. Presumably, because of his young age, he was spared after being deposed as Emperor. The date of his death is unknown.
480: The Last Legitimate Western Roman Emperor Dies
Julius Nepos, predecessor to Romulus Augustulus, was assassinated on 9 May 480. He was the last Western Roman Emperor to have been recognized by the Eastern Roman Empire, and therefore widely considered the last de jure or legitimate Western Roman Emperor, despite not being the last de facto ruler.
481: Clovis I is Crowned King of the Franks
Clovis I was crowned king by his father Childeric at the age of roughly sixteen. Clovis I united all the Frankish tribes under one kingdom, marking the beginning of the Merovingian dynasty. This dynasty played a significant role in the reshaping of the Western Roman Empire into an early prototype of Europe. The predecessor to the Carolingian dynasty, the Merovingian dynasty created the Kingdom of the Franks that would stand united until the Treaty of Verdun in 843.
484: Huneric Issues a Decree Against the Catholics
Huneric, King of the Vandals, declared on 25 February 484, that he would begin “casting back the evil counsels” that “had been led into error.”[5] As the leader of the Vandals, who were Arian, Huneric staunchly opposed the Catholics as he believed them to be fundamentally wrong about the nature of Christ.
486: Syagrius is Defeated
Clovis I, with help from Ragnachar, Ruler of Cambrai, attacked Syagrius, a Roman general and the last leader of the Roman remnant-state of Soissons. This marked the end of Roman rule in Gaul.
488-493: Ostrogothic Invasion of the Italian Peninsula
Starting in 488, the Ostrogoths, under the rule of Theodoric the Great, who was himself given the command from Emperor Zeno, launched a campaign into the Italian peninsula. Although Rome was conquered by Odoacer in 476, the Italian peninsula was not fully conquered by a Germanic tribe until the Ostrogoths defeated Odoacer himself in 489. Four years later in 493, Theodoric killed Odoacer after inviting him to a feast.[6-I, 6-II, 6-III] The Ostrogoths then ruled over the Italian peninsula until around 554 when Justinian reconquered it and subsequently absorbed it into the Eastern Roman Empire (see below).
491: Anastasius is Crowned Eastern Roman Emperor
Anastasius I Dicorus (491-518) ascended to the throne after the death of his predecessor Zeno that same year.
493: Odoacer Dies
Four years after the Ostrogothic invasion of the Italian peninsula, Theodoric the Great executed his nemesis Odoacer at a banquet in Ravenna, Italia.
507: Clovis I Reunites Northern Gaul
During the Battle of Vouille, Clovis managed to kill Alaric II, King of the Visigoths, driving the Visigoths almost entirely out of Northern Gaul.
508: Clovis I Converts to Catholicism
Originally a pagan king, Clovis converted to Catholicism in the fifteenth year of his reign, partly as a result of his wife Clotilde being a devout Catholic and partly due to his losses during a war with the Alamanni [7]. This marked a significant shift for the previously pagan Franks and began their Christianization.
518: Justin I Becomes Byzantine Emperor
Upon the death of Anastasius I, Justin, who was a count and commander of the palace guard, ascended to the throne. One of his most notable feats was the ending of the Acacian Schism (484-519), which consisted of a divide between the Eastern and Western Churches.
525: The Christian Calendar is Invented
The Eastern Roman mathematician, astronomer, and theologian Dionysius Exiguus introduced a Christian calendar at the behest of Pope John I. This calendar formed the basis of the later Gregorian calendar that most people still use to this day. The term “anno Domini nostri Jesu Christi” most commonly shortened to “anno Domini” and abbreviated as A.D., meaning “the year of our Lord Jesus Christ” or just “year of our Lord” respectively, came into use around this time. This dating system is still widely used to this day and is sometimes referred to by contemporary scholars as the “Common Era” or CE. This calendar system was not perfect and has since been revised by many other scholars before eventually giving us the Gregorian calendar. The Venerable Bede was one such scholar to build upon and popularize its use (see below).
527: Justinian Becomes the Sole Emperor of the Byzantine Empire
After being named co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire, Justinian ascended to the position of sole emperor upon the death of his uncle, Justin I later that same year.
528-533: Justinian I Revises the Legal Code
In 528 Justinian revised Theodosius II’s legal code, creating texts that allow us much of our current understanding of the Roman legal system. This legal system set the precedent for future Roman law, and to an extent, modern law.
532: The Nika Revolt
On Tuesday, January 13th, 532, a massive riot broke out in the streets of Constantinople that lasted for five days. Starting in the Hippodrome in Constantinople, the Greens and Blues, two circus factions preparing to partake in chariot races, came together in protest of Emperor Justinian’s policies. The crowd chanted “nika” which roughly translates to victory or conquer. Justinian’s mishandling of the situation only exacerbated the issue, causing the riot to escalate into a full scale revolt. The issue was resolved after Justinian I finally ordered the military to take action, ending with some 30,000 dead. [8-I, 8-II, 8-III, 8-IV]
532: Construction of Hagia Sophia Begins
The cathedral known as Saint Sophia, originally built under the rule of the Theodosians, was destroyed at the start of the Nika Revolt in January of 532. Justinian I ordered its reconstruction shortly thereafter in Constantinople. Upon completion, this remained the largest roofed structure in the world for roughly 800 years and the largest cathedral in the world until 1507, when the Seville Cathedral was built in Andalusia. [9]
533-534: Emperor Justinian Launches a Campaign to Reconquer Vandal Africa
In 439, the Vandals had taken Carthage and established themselves as the rulers of Northern Africa. After nearly 100 years of Vandal rule, Justinian I, in an attempt to liberate the subjugated Catholics of the region, launched his campaign to reconquer Vandal controlled Africa, this time under the rule of the Eastern Roman Empire. [10]
534: The Kingdom of the Burgundians Falls to the Franks
Under the leadership of the various sons of Clovis I, the Franks attacked and defeated the Burgundians before annexing their land into the Merovingian dynasty.
534-540: Emperor Justinian Launches a Campaign to Reconquer Italia
Nearly six decades after Odoacer toppled Rome and declared himself the king of Italia, and after 41 years of relatively uncontested rule under the Ostrogoths, Justinian I launched a campaign to reconquer the Italian peninsula.
535-554: Ostrogothic Kings Temporarily Restore their Power in Italia
541: Bubonic Plague Outbreak in the Eastern Roman Empire
Originating in Ethiopia, a wave of bubonic plague caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis, hit the Eastern Roman Empire ultimately wiping out up to a third of its population. This was the first of many waves of the bubonic plague that would ultimately weaken the empire. [11]
554: Emperor Justinian Fully Subdues Italia
555: Samaritan Revolts and Repression in Northern Palestine
573: Gregory of Tours is Appointed Bishop
575: Childebert II is Crowned King of Austrasia
578: Tiberius II Becomes Eastern Roman Emperor
Justin II had adopted Tiberius as his son in 574, around the same time he had become prone to fits of insanity, effectively making Tiberius co-emperor. In 578, Justin II had died, leaving Tiberius to become the de jure sole emperor.
582: Maurice Becomes Eastern Roman Emperor
Maurice (582-602) ascended to the throne upon the death of his predecessor Tiberius II in that same year.
597: Pope Gregory names Augustine of Canterbury Bishop
Augustine of Canterbury spread Christianity to Britannia, perhaps most notably converting Æthelberht of Kent (see below). [12]
597: Æthelberht of Kent Converts to Christianity
According to the Venerable Bede, Æthelberht of Kent converted to Christianity as a result of the missionary work of Augustine of Canterbury. [13] This marked the first point in history in which an English king would convert to Christianity. This also marked the start of a wave of Christian conversion among English kings.
602: Emperor Maurice is Deposed and Killed
Due to the costly war efforts against the Persians, Lombards, Avars, and Slavs, the imperial treasury had run dry, causing taxes to rise and the pay of soldiers to decrease. Despite his military successes, unrest grew, and after ordering troops to set up camp north of the Danube River for the winter, the Balkan army revolted under the leadership of Phocas, a junior officer. Phocas marched on Constantinople and deposed Maurice before executing all of his sons and then the emperor himself. This marked the first successful coup in the Eastern Roman Empire since 324. [14-I][14-II][14-III]
616: Rædwald of East Anglia Defeats and Kills Æthelfrith
After the displacement of Edwin at the hands of Æthelfrith’s father Æthelric, King Rædwald allowed Edwin to take refuge in East Anglia. Æthelfrith both attempted to bribe and threaten Rædwald on the issue of Edwin, prompting Rædwald to launch an attack on Æthelfrith, which resulted in victory and the reinstatement of Edwin as the King of Northumbria. [15]
626: Siege Against Constantinople
Persians, Avars, and Sclaveni attacked Constantinople on multiple fronts, but failed to take the city.
627: King Edwin Converts to Christianity
Edwin, King of Northumbria converted to Christianity as a result of Paulinus, a Roman missionary.
664: Synod of Whitby
King Oswiu of Bernicia hosted a debate to decide the date in which Easter would be celebrated and the nature of monastic tonsure due to a discrepancy between the Roman and Celtic Christian traditions. By the end of the synod, Oswiu had favored the Roman tradition.
718: Charles Martel Becomes de facto Ruler of the Franks
731: The Venerable Bede Popularizes the Christian Dating System
The Christian dating system originally invented by Dionysius Exiguus in 525 was expanded upon multiple times by various scholars. The Venerable Bede, a renowned English monk, author, and scholar, largely popularized this system in 731 with the completion of his Historia Ecclesiastica. Bede also introduced the dating of years before the birth of Jesus as “ante Christum natum” or a.C.n, meaning “before the birth of Christ”. Today we refer to this dating system as B.C. (Before Christ) or sometimes as BCE (Before Common Era).
732: Battle of Tours
A Frankish mayor by the name of Charles Martel pushed back Muslim forces in a moment that helped to define Europe in the early Middle Ages. The Muslim attempt to reunite the Roman Empire under Islam was crushed, giving Charles the nickname “Martel”, meaning “hammer”.
741: Charles Martel Dies
751: Pepin the Short Becomes King of the Franks
768: Pepin the Short Dies
768: Charles the Great Becomes King of the Franks
Charles the Great, also known as Charlemagne, King of the Franks was an influential figure of the Middle Ages whose actions defined the period of history known as the Carolingian period.
773-774: Charlemagne Conquers the Lombard Kingdom of Italy
800: Charlemagne is Crowned Holy Roman Emperor
843: Treaty of Verdun
The Kingdom of the Franks was divided into West Francia, Middle Francia, and East Francia, each under the leadership of Charles the Bald, Lothar I, and Louis the German respectively. Being the three sons of Louis I, their territories foreshadowed the shapes of modern European countries.