Discover the Middle Ages
Understanding Medieval Europe
The Issue of Definitions
Hello and welcome to the comprehensive timeline of Medieval Europe. Before examining the extensive and intriguing history of Europe in the Middle Ages, we must first define what the Middle Ages were exactly. More specifically, we will start by examining the time period, ideas, and events which best define the Middle Ages. Historians often disagree on which dates best define this period, as the concept of “the Middle Ages” itself didn’t even come about until the Seventeenth Century. The people of the medieval period certainly didn’t know they were living in the Middle Ages and as such, had no way of defining it themselves, which leaves it up to contemporary historians to properly define the period. It is important to understand that like all historical periods, the Middle Ages are fairly unclear as to how they can properly be defined. The very act of determining when a specific period ends, and when another begins, is inherently arbitrary, and as a result, there is no definitive right or wrong answer. In all periods within the Middle Ages, there existed continuities and differences, so attempting to consistently define the end of some ages and the beginning of others by their differences is not a practical approach in many cases. For example, many historians consider the end of the Western Roman fiscal structure in 476 to be the telltale sign of the end of an era, yet if we examine the contemporary sources, we will see that the first known source to give relevance to this idea, a chronicler by the name of Marcellinus, did so around 518, nearly 4 decades after the supposed apocalyptic collapse of Western Rome. The fall of Western Rome, very commonly referred to as the key event that ended antiquity and began the Middle Ages was, in reality, a far more gradual process than it is often portrayed to be.
Defining the Middle Ages
To most historians, the Middle Ages started with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ended with the Italian Renaissance. Others believe the beginning of the Middle Ages started as late as 1000 AD and ended as late as 1800 AD.[1] I, for one, agree far more with the former, as the fall of Western Rome is what led to the rebuilding of complexity that defined the Middle Ages in so many ways. However, while the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 to Odoacer, this date was not and should not be treated as a definitive start nor end date. The fall of Western Rome, while important to the story of the early medieval period, was a slow and gradual process, as was the start of the Middle Ages itself. Odoacer’s deposition of Romulus Augustulus and the sacking of Rome signaled the end of the Western Roman Empire’s fiscal structure (and certainly not its culture), but by this point Western Rome had been declining for quite some time. While the fall of Western Rome was an important event by itself, it was not necessarily a causal event in terms of offering a definitive start to the Middle Ages. However, the fall of Western Rome is important nonetheless as it offers a point where we can mark the slow end of the Classical period and the gradual buildup to the Middle Ages. As such, the Fall of Western Rome will be included in this timeline, but should not be understood as a definitive starting date. The cultural elements of the Roman Empire itself have continued well throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern era. Therefore, we should not reference a decline in Roman culture as a signal for the start of the Middle Ages either. We can, however, examine a distinct new culture that arose with the expansion of Germanic tribes around roughly 500 AD. So if we must choose a rough date in defining the start of the Middle Ages, 500 AD would be it.
Likewise, the end of the Middle Ages cannot easily be assigned to a specific date. Many historians agree that roughly 1500 AD serves as an adequate marker for the end of the Middle Ages. Many of these same historians also argue that the Italian Renaissance was the key event that determined this date to be the end of the millennium-long era. While I agree that roughly 1500 serves as an appropriate endpoint for the Middle Ages in Europe, I do not believe the Italian Renaissance should be the sole factor in determining this date. As some expert historians such as Chris Wickham have argued, the gradual buildup of increasingly complex economic systems, taxation, literacy, and interconnectedness took many centuries to develop Europe into the continent we know it as today.[2] While the Italian Renaissance is a key event in the Late Middle Ages, it is only the culmination of many prior developments, and not some spontaneous event as it is often painted out to be. One of the key characteristics of the Middle Ages as a whole was the birth of a recognizable European identity. The Italian Renaissance is often cited as a rebirth in interest in classical antiquity. However, upon examining the entirety of the Middle Ages, one can see that this interest in classical antiquity never died in the first place. This perceived “rebirth” was merely the culmination of centuries of reorganization and the rebuilding of complexity. As literature became more common, and education more far reaching, brilliant scholars began to arise, such as those of the Italian Renaissance. The Italian Renaissance however, was not the only period in which culture and literature became more widespread. For example, the Carolingian period (roughly 718-887) was a period defined by the creation and spread of literature and yet, few, if any historians consider this to be a cutoff for the arbitrary assignment of a beginning or end date to the Middle Ages or one of its main subperiods. Likewise, geographical locations such as the Italian peninsula saw near constant change in leadership but again, no one period ended, nor another began. The point in all this is to simply show that any important or history changing event, no matter how large or small, can be used as a point of reference to the beginning or end of a period, and events themselves (such as the fall of Western Rome or the Italian Renaissance) should not be treated as definitive, one size fits all start nor end dates to the Middle Ages.
Put simply, the Middle Ages- which have always been difficult and controversial to define- should not be defined so matter-of-factly and should instead be seen as a period that can be flexible in its definition. The rough time period of 500-1500 serves as an adequate timeline to assign the Middle Ages to, but the gray area surrounding its start and end dates should be considered. As for the various subperiods of the Middle Ages, they can be roughly defined as follows:
The Dark Ages-
500–950 AD
The High Middle Ages-
950–1300 AD
The Late Middle Ages-
1300–1500 AD
The Dark Ages
(500 - 950)
The period traditionally known as the Dark Ages, also called the Early Middle Ages, is best defined as the first sub-period of the Middle Ages that lasted from roughly 500 AD to 950 AD. While sometimes mistakenly interpreted as a derogatory term, the term Dark Ages is simply meant to highlight the lack of surviving records and documentation from this period. The term “dark” here is only meant to imply that this period in history is difficult to examine. [3] The people of the Dark Ages were no less inherently complex, intelligent, artistic, or interesting than people from the periods before or after, as we shall see.
476: The Fall of Western Rome
The last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus (475-476)*, was deposed by the Germanic military leader Odoacer (476- 493) after centuries of Western Roman decline. The fall of Western Rome was a gradual process, and this date doesn’t encompass the fall of the Western Roman Empire in its entirety. For example, by AD 439, the Vandals had taken Carthage and established themselves as the predominant force in Northern Africa; what followed were attempts to recapture Northern Africa in 441, 460, and 468, all of which were ultimately failures. If nothing else however, the date of 476 is an important milestone in marking the formal end to the western half of the Empire’s fiscal structure. The Romanitas, or Roman identity that had so profoundly shaped the Roman Empire, had continued throughout the entirety of the Middle Ages and well into the modern day. The Romanitas continued the legacy of Rome along with the Eastern Roman Empire, also called the Byzantine Empire.
*The birth date of Romulus Augustulus is contested, but he is believed to have been born between 460 and 465, making him between 11 and 16 years of age when he was deposed. Presumably, because of his young age, he was spared after being deposed as Emperor. The date of his death is unknown.
480: The Last Legitimate Western Roman Emperor Dies
Julius Nepos, predecessor to Romulus Augustulus, was assassinated on 9 May 480. He was the last Western Roman Emperor to have been recognized by the Eastern Roman Empire, and therefore widely considered the last de jure or legitimate Western Roman Emperor, despite not being the last de facto ruler.
481: Clovis I is Crowned King of the Franks
Clovis I was crowned king by his father Childeric at the age of roughly sixteen. Clovis I united all the Frankish tribes under one kingdom, marking the beginning of the Merovingian dynasty. This dynasty played a significant role in the reshaping of the Western Roman Empire into an early prototype of Europe.
484: Huneric Issues a Decree Against the Catholics
Huneric, King of the Vandals, declared on 25 February 484, that he would begin “casting back the evil counsels” that “had been led into error.”[4] As the leader of the Vandals, who were Arian, Huneric staunchly opposed the Catholics as he believed them to be fundamentally wrong about the nature of Christ.
486: Syagrius is Defeated
Clovis I, with help from Ragnachar, Ruler of Cambrai, attacked Syagrius, a Roman general and the last leader of the Roman remnant-state of Soissons. This marked the end of Roman rule in Gaul.
488-493: Ostrogothic Invasion of the Italian Peninsula
Starting in 488, the Ostrogoths, under the rule of Theodoric the Great, who was himself given the command from Emperor Zeno, launched a campaign into the Italian peninsula. Although Rome was conquered by Odoacer in 476, the Italian peninsula was not fully conquered by a Germanic tribe until the Ostrogoths defeated Odoacer himself in 489. Four years later in 493, Theodoric killed Odoacer after inviting him to a feast.[5-I, 5-II, 5-III] The Ostrogoths then ruled over the Italian peninsula until around 554 when Justinian reconquered it and subsequently absorbed it into the Eastern Roman Empire (see below).
507: Clovis I Reunites Northern Gaul
During the Battle of Vouille, Clovis managed to kill Alaric II, King of the Visigoths, driving the Visigoths almost entirely out of Northern Gaul.
518: Justin I Becomes Byzantine Emperor
Upon the death of Anastasius I, Justin, who was a count and commander of the palace guard, ascended to the throne. One of his most notable feats was the ending of the Acacian Schism (484-519), which consisted of a divide between the Eastern and Western Churches.
527: Justinian Becomes the Sole Emperor of the Byzantine Empire
After being named co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire, Justinian ascended to the position of sole emperor upon the death of his uncle, Justin I later that same year.
528-533: Justinian I Revises the Legal Code
Justinian revised the entire Byzantine legal code, creating texts that allow us much of our current understanding of the Roman legal system. This legal system set the precedent for future Roman law, and to an extent, modern law.
532: The Nika Revolt
On Tuesday, January 13th, 532, a massive riot broke out in the streets of Constantinople that lasted for five days. Starting in the Hippodrome in Constantinople, the Greens and Blues, two circus factions preparing to partake in chariot races, came together in protest of Emperor Justinian’s policies. Justinian’s mishandling of the situation only exacerbated the issue, causing the riot to escalate into a full scale revolt. The issue was resolved after Justinian I finally ordered the military to take action, ending with some 30,000 dead. [6-I, 6-II, 6-III, 6-IV]
532: Construction of Hagia Sophia Begins
The cathedral known as Saint Sophia, originally built under the rule of the Theodosians, was destroyed at the start of the Nika Revolt in January of 532. Justinian I ordered its reconstruction shortly thereafter in Constantinople. Upon completion, this remained the largest roofed structure in the world for roughly 800 years and the largest cathedral in the world until 1507, when the Seville Cathedral was built in Andalusia. [7]
533-534: Emperor Justinian Launches a Campaign to Reconquer Vandal Africa
In 439, the Vandals had taken Carthage and established themselves as the rulers of Northern Africa. After nearly 100 years of Vandal rule, Justinian I, in an attempt to liberate the subjugated Catholics of the region, launched his campaign to reconquer Vandal controlled Africa, this time under the rule of the Eastern Roman Empire. [8]
534: The Kingdom of the Burgundians Falls to the Franks
Under the leadership of the various sons of Clovis I, the Franks attacked and defeated the Burgundians before annexing their land into the Merovingian dynasty.
534-540: Emperor Justinian Launches a Campaign to Reconquer Italia
Nearly six decades after Odoacer toppled Rome and declared himself the king of Italia, and after 41 years of relatively uncontested rule under the Ostrogoths, Justinian I launched a campaign to reconquer the Italian peninsula.
535-554: Ostrogothic Kings Temporarily Restore their Power in Italia
554: Emperor Justinian Fully Subdues Italia
555: Samaritan Revolts and Repression in Northern Palestine
573: Gregory of Tours is Appointed Bishop
575: Childebert II is Crowned King of Austrasia
626: Siege Against Constantinople
Persians, Avars, and Sclaveni attacked Constantinople on multiple fronts, but failed to take the city.
718: Charles Martel Becomes de facto Ruler of the Franks
732: Battle of Tours
A Frankish mayor by the name of Charles Martel pushed back Muslim forces in a moment that helped to define Europe in the early Middle Ages. The Muslim attempt to reunite the Roman Empire under Islam was crushed, giving Charles the nickname “Martel”, meaning “hammer”.
741: Charles Martel Dies
751: Pepin the Short Becomes King of the Franks
768: Pepin the Short Dies
768: Charles the Great Becomes King of the Franks
Charles the Great, also known as Charlemagne, King of the Franks was an influential figure of the Middle Ages whose actions defined the period of history known as the Carolingian period.